Physics of Roller Coasters Essay -- Roller Coaster Theme Park Amusemen

Roller coasters are driven almost entirely by inertial, gravitational and centripetal forces. Amusement parks keep building faster and more complex roller coasters, but the fundamental principles at work remain the same. A roller coaster is like train. It consists of a series of connected cars that move on tracks. But unlike a passenger train, a roller coaster has no engine or power source of its own. For most of the ride, a roller coaster is moved only by the forces of inertia and gravity. The only exertion of energy occurs at the very beginning of the ride, when the cars are pulled up the first hill, or the "lift hill". The purpose of this first climb is to build up potential energy. The concept of potential energy is: As the coaster gets higher in the air, there is a greater distance gravity can pull it down. The potential energy built-up going up the hill can be released as kinetic energy, energy of motion, as soon as the cars start coasting down the hill. At the top of the first lift hill (a), there is maximum potential energy because the train is as high as it gets. As the train starts down the hill, the potential energy is converted into kinetic energy -- the train speeds up. At the bottom of the hill (b), there is maximum kinetic energy and little potential energy. The kinetic energy propels the train up the second hill (c), building up the potential-energy level. As the train enters the loop (d), it has a lot of kinetic energy and not much potential energy. The potential-energy level builds as the train speeds to the top of the loop (e), but it is soon converted back to kinetic energy as the train leaves the loop (f). When the coaster is relea... ...ly upside down, gravity is pulling you out of your seat, toward the ground, but the stronger acceleration force is pushing you into your seat, toward the sky. Since the two forces pushing you in opposite directions are nearly equal, your body feels very light. As in the sharp descent, you are almost weightless for the brief moment when you are at the top of the loop. As you come out of the loop and level out, you become heavy again. In a loop-the-loop, the intensity of the acceleration force is determined by two factors: the speed of the train and the angle of the turn. As the train enters the loop, it has maximum kinetic energy -- that is, it is moving at top speed. At the top of the loop, gravity has slowed the train down somewhat, so it has more potential energy and less kinetic energy -- it is moving at reduced speed.

The Tragedy of William Shakespeares Hamlet Essay -- Tragedy William S

The Tragedy of William Shakespeare's Hamlet It seems that in this merciless mourning, I have opened a tomb. And though my sight be of seeing, it is not as it once was. For what I see is not with thine own eyes. It is as death appears to those awake. A coldness, an emptiness, that I cannot forsake. Hope Saphos DeVenuto A melody in literature is a language that Shakespeare uses freely in Hamlet with infinite variety. The imagery relates to us to create to the senses a realization of what is occurring as well as to kindle our responses. There are many interesting characters with invaluable opinions, a labyrinth of lines convoluting and mystifying, along with dramatic sarcasm. It is very effective in drawing the attention to certain characters that the audience will need to see more than others. If we really lend an ear to Hamlet's every word, we are drawn into an inward greatness of his spirit. Shakespeare created Hamlet as a highly intellectual being that can see through everything and everyone. To see clearly through a stone is to see the profundity of truth. Then ...

American Dream Essay

Many people in the world have an idea about the American Dream. Some people’s American Dream is to help people who are in need to be successful in life while others may dream of making a lot of money. The key to the American Dream for most people is attaining that dream job. However, it can’t be just any job; it usually includes having a job where one feels successful and comes with minimal stress. It gives people determination to be their best. In order to figure out what job I might best be suited for, I took the Gregorc Learning Style Inventory test, and it showed that I am a concrete random learner. Therefore, I enjoy establishing relationships with others, seeing possibilities, gaining ideas, and being competitive. Hence, my dream job would be to become a physical education (PE) teacher. Most people think they know what being a PE teacher is all about, but some may find that the job is more involved than they realized. First of all, according to Career Cruising, a vocational website, â€Å"Physical education teachers educate their students about good sportsmanship, teamwork, personal fitness, and how to lead a healthy and active lifestyle† (â€Å"Physical Education Teacher†). Being a PE teacher requires knowing about students and their abilities. â€Å"A physical education teacher teaches students how to keep their bodies fit through good health practices and exercise† (â€Å"Becoming a Physical Education Teacher†).  They organize games and challenges that promote physical activity for children and young adults from kindergarten to high school. Secondly, there are many responsibilities that PE teachers have. PE teachers need to be able to adjust their curricula and to adapt to children with disabilities or different physical abilities (Bold). For example, if the weather outside was effecting the activity played, the PE teacher would need to be able to change the plans by planning something inside. Another responsibility that a PE teacher has is having strong listening and speaking skills. Besides being knowledgeable about an activity, they need to be able to communicate and demonstrate the activity properly to the class. Therefore, I will be able to observe students and maintain discipline within the class. PE teachers also interact with parents, other teachers and the school’s administration, but it takes knowledge and education to get there. Finally, people that want to become teachers can’t just graduate high school and try to become one; work experience and knowledge about activities are essential keys to being a  successful PE teacher. For instance, I have played volleyball for seven years, so I have learned a lot about how to coordinate conditioning activities, drills, games. That has provided a good foundation for me to become a PE teacher. Because of that, I would also love to coach a volleyball team while being a PE teacher. Even volunteering at the Boys/Girls Club or the YMCA would help me before I become a PE teacher because I would be able to interact with kids and learn how they interact with each other. I know that before becoming a PE teacher, I need to truly enjoy being around people and kids which is something that I know I already have. It’s not going to be â€Å"easy as pie† to become a PE teacher. First of all, Going to college to study certain majors is a big part in becoming a PE teacher. I will complete a degree in health and physical education at a four- year college or university. Classes that I might have to take in order to become a PE teacher are Kinesiology, Exercise Physiology, and a Health and Wellness class (â€Å"Skills Required for Become a PE Teacher†). Going to college and learning about physical health will let me have a better understanding of what I am going to teach about. Going to college will cost about seventy thousand dollars but, I am going to college on a volleyball scholarship which will lower the costs. Education is the key role in becoming a PE teacher. There are many personal qualifications into becoming a teacher. A skill that I will need to have in order to become a PE teacher would be to have a general understanding of the purpose and value of physical fitness and how individuals can perform their exercises at their best. PE teachers value physical fitness and want their students to perform at their best therefor being able to communicate with students will help me understand what their bodies are capable of. Personality is a big role in being any type of teacher. Having a positive attitude throughout the day will help me motivate my students to do better, which is a big key in becoming a PE teacher. â€Å"On a daily basis, physical education teachers face unmotivated students and students who are living unhealthy lifestyles† (â€Å"Working with Students†). It is my goal to motivate students and to have fun. To me, having a relationship with my students and having fun with them is a lot more important than how much I would get paid as a teacher. One stereotype that people have about teachers centers around how much teachers get paid. Some say it is too little while others say it is too much: â€Å"The national median salary of all middle and high school teachers is around $52,000 dollars a year† (â€Å"Physical Education Teacher†). It may not seem like a lot but, it’s all that I need. I would also love to coach a school volleyball team and coaching a team would could help me make an additional $2,000 a year (Dodrill). Overall, the American Dream involves having a job that one loves. Even thinking about being a PE teacher and even a coach makes me smile. The American Dream involves with making one happy. I would love to help students learn about their health and teach them new sports! Having obstacles everyday will only make me a better teacher! I will have to work ha rd in college to get this job, but working hard is something that I am up for. Having a relationship with my students and learning what I can do to become a better teacher is something that I can’t wait to wake up every morning to do. Having a dream job and getting to interact with students would be perfect. Getting to coach a volleyball team and have relationships with my students would make my dream job even better! Having fun at a job and doing what you love is all that matters to me! Being a physical education teacher and a volleyball coach for the school would be my American Dream job. Works Cited Bold, Jessica. â€Å"Skills Required for Become a PE Teacher.† EHow. Demand Media, 11 Oct. 2009. Web. 07 May 2014. Dodrill, Tara. â€Å"What Do High School Coaching Jobs Pay?† EHow. Demand Media, 24 July †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦2009. Wed. 22 May 2014 Manross, Mark. â€Å"PE Central: Becoming a Physical Education Teacher.† PE Central: Becoming a Physical Education Teacher. Executive Director, 1 Jan. 2014. Web. 07 May 2014. â€Å"Physical Education Teacher.† Career Cruising. Anaca Technologies. n.d. Web. 15 June 2010. Zeiger, Stacy. â€Å"The Pros & Cons of Being a Physical Education Teacher.† Work. Demand Media, 11 Nov. 2012. Web. 07 May 2014.

How important is this cycle to Earth? Essay

The hydrologic cycle or the water cycle is basically the incessant and continuous flow and movement of water, beneath, above, and on the Earth’s surface (Encyclopedia of Earth, 2007). It involves a number of processes such as the changing of water into its different states, namely, vapor, ice, and liquid, as it goes through the different stages of the cycle (Encyclopedia of the Earth, 2007). In addition, since it is a cycle, it does not have a beginning or an end. Basically, in broader terms, the water cycle is a conceptual model of the movement and the storage of water between the lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere (Encyclopedia of the Earth, 2007). Water is stored in the earth’s major reservoirs such as oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers, soils, snowfields, groundwater and even the atmosphere (Encyclopedia of the Earth, 2007). As mentioned above, water goes through different processes. These processes can be generally divided into 5 parts: condensation, evaporation, precipitation, infiltration, and runoff (Encyclopedia of the Earth, 2007). The first process is condensation which occurs when the water vapor transforms into water droplets in the air thereby producing clouds. As these clouds condense further, they hold more moisture. When it can no longer contain the moisture, they release through precipitation, which can be in the form of rain, snow, hail, sleet, and fog drip (Encyclopedia of the Earth, 2007). The water that drops back down to the earth then seeps into the ground through a process called infiltration. On the other hand, if precipitation occurs much faster than it can infiltrate the ground, it then becomes a process called runoff. Basically, runoff water remains on the surface and then subsequently flows to large bodies of water such as oceans, rivers, lakes, and seas among others (Encyclopedia of the Earth, 2007). Finally as infiltration and runoff occur simultaneously, evaporation, which is a process driven by the sun, also occurs. Evaporation is the transformation of liquid water into water vapor. This process is largely aided by sunlight as it increases the temperature in lakes, oceans, and seas (Encyclopedia of the Earth, 2007). As the water in these bodies of water heats, its molecules are released and are turned into gas. This warm air then rises into the atmosphere and then becomes the water vapor involved in the condensation process, which repeats the hydrologic cycle (Encyclopedia of the Earth, 2007). However, other processes also occur within these five processes. One example is sublimation which is the direct transformation of solid water, such as ice and snow, into water vapor without passing through the liquid state (Encyclopedia of the Earth, 2007). Basically, the hydrologic cycle is highly important to the Earth as it provides life to its inhabitants. The cycle basically moves the water through a continuous and constant flow and keeps it fresh for different uses. For example, if water that evaporates does not fall back to the earth through precipitation in the form of rain, then the world’s crops and vegetation would die out and ultimately result in shortages in food. In addition, the oceans and the seas would dry out and kill all marine life. There will also be shortages in water supply as people highly depend on the water that comes from oceans, seas, and lakes. The water shortage would then result in massive thirst and dehydration, which would ultimately kill all human life. On the other hand, if the water does not rise to the air through evaporation after a typhoon, cyclone, or a massive storm, then most parts of the Earth would remain flooded and eventually, all the lands would be submerged underwater. In short, the hydrologic cycle generally keeps the flow and storage of water in a natural state of balance. If this cycle ceases function properly, then all life on Earth would eventually be wiped out due to thirst, hunger, and drought. References Encyclopedia of the Earth. (2007). Hydrologic Cycle. Retrieved July 9, 2008 from http://www. eoearth. org/article/Hydrologic_cycle.

Outline of the Nayar of India Essay

The Nayar are a matrilineal society that resides in southwest India. They have a unique social organization and culture. Their extended family is among foraging bands, and are formulated of a nuclear family is the basic unit of production and consumption. Culture and religion is one that is serious and all people living under the political jurisdiction are required to follow the state religion. When it comes to kinship, class prearranges children marriages in order to maintain land, wealth, and power within the group. There is still division between the roles between men and women. Men still considered women, inferior and restricted to the household and men are superior and more intelligent. Today life for the Nayar of India is changing the roles of men and women, with technology rising in communities and becoming more educated women are now leaving their homes for employment. As times change with new technology, the people of Nayar never forget the importance of religion and family. I. Beliefs and Values 1. Family 2. Culture 3. Religion II. Kinship 1. Children 2. Ownership of land 3. Marriages III. Gender Relations 1. The roles between men and women 2. Duties portrayed as a community 3. Changes in gender responsibility References: NAYAR FAMILY AND KINSHIP: A STUDY IN CHANGE AND CONTINUITY http://www.isec.ac.in/Nayar_family_and_kinship_A_study_in_change_and_continuity. Pdf Nowak, B., & Laird, P. (2010). Cultural Anthropology. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education. Religion and International Relations http://site.ebrary.com.proxy- library.ashford.edu/lib/ashford/search.action?adv.x=1&p00=Nayar+of+India

Film Analysis – Blade Runner

MAC 170: INTRODUCTION TO FILM STUDIES ASSIGNMENT ONE – FILM ANALYSIS FILM CHOSEN: Blade Runner (1982) EXTRACT: INT – Sebastian’s Building, starting with the shot of Deckard climbing up the wall. Duration: 9 minutes (Chapter 30, Blade Runner: The Final Cut, 2007) The following essay will be a close analysis of an extract from the 1982 film Blade Runner, which was directed by Ridley Scott. Blade Runner is a science-fiction film based on the book ‘Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep’ which was written by Phillip K. Dick.This essay will also explore how Ridley Scott’s use of mise en scene and editing in Blade Runner can exhibit him as an auteur. An ‘auteur’ is known as the ‘author’ of the film; a director that uses recognisable and similar traits and themes throughout a number of their films. The ‘auteur’ was created through the ‘auteur’ theory, which argues that the director is the most importan t person behind making a film. It was first established by an establishment of film makers in 1950’s Paris. Some of these film makers were Francois Trauffaut, Jean Luc-Goddard and Jacques Rivette.They were angered by a critical establishment in France that lauded a film’s fidelity to a screenplay or novel and regarded the film director as merely a translator of material from the verbal medium to the cinematic. For this view Trauffaut and company substituted a notion of personal cinema – a cinema in which the director, not the screenwriter, could be seen as the controlling force behind the film. (Allen & Gomery, 1985: 71-72) This quote explains how the auteur theory was established, and how Trauffaut created la politique des auteurs, which is a policy in which the director is the main creative force when making a film.Ridley Scott can be classed as an auteur for his repeated use of strong female characters, which are present both in Blade Runner, Alien (1979) and Thelma & Louise (1991), the future and the unknown, and the ‘created’ human. This essay will explore these points using the close analysis of Blade Runner, whilst also comparing Blade Runner to Alien. Ridley Scott can be classed as an auteur for his use of setting in his films; he tends to create a post-apocalyptic setting, mainly set in the ot-so-distant future. This can be seen in the extract of Blade Runner, from the wide angle, long shot of Deckard on the roof. The tall buildings, which are close together, help to connote an industrialised city, and the lack of organic matter helps to show the futuristic world as very bleak, old and dirty. The use of space surrounding Deckard when he is hanging from the roof help to establish that the city lacks people and is very de-humanised and an almost dystopia, which is very similar to Alien.Alien and Blade Runner warn us against a capitalist future gone wrong, where such feelings and bonds are so severely truncated that a qu ite literal dehumanization has become perhaps the gravest danger. (Byers, 1990: 39) This dehumanization feature which Ridley Scott has placed into both Blade Runner and Alien gives both films a sense of fear to the audience when both films were first released, that the possibility of the earth being dehumanized is quite great.The shot of Deckard hanging from the roof also shows how high the building is, with the audience barely being able to see the floor, which helps to connote a sense of uncertainty from the audience, as they are unsure as to whether or not Deckard will fall. The use of rain in this scene is very powerful, as it makes the scene feel very depressive, creating a bleak aspect to the film whilst also creating a ‘bad feeling’ for the audience, as it connotes to the audience that something bad is going to happen.This helps to establish a bleak, industrialised future, a one in which there are little humans on earth in Blade Runner, similar to Alien which can help to describe Ridley Scott as an auteur. Ridley Scott can also be defined as an auteur for his use of strong and determined protagonists, especially in Blade Runner and Alien. In this scene extract, Deckard can be seen as a strong protagonist due to his determination to ‘retire’ Roy. This scene however, also shows the audience the similarities between Roy and Deckard.The cross cutting editing used at the start of the scene when both characters are dealing with their similar hand injuries helps to show the similarity between Roy and Deckard as they are both dealing with the same sort of pain. Deckard in this scene seems very determined to retire Roy, however when Roy does die, the audience seem to get the feeling that Deckard seems sad about this. The editing in this extract is quite slow at first, using long shots before cutting helping to create a slow pace to the scene.The extract then changes pace however, when Roy is ‘hunting’ Deckard, the editing b ecomes quite fast and rapid making it exciting for the audience to watch. The shot when Roy smashes his head through the wall helps to show the slow pace turning fast. The way the editing is quite slow and then there is a jolt – the point where Roy smashes his head through the wall – the editing then speeds up a little after this shot, until Roy’s death where the editing slows down rapidly, using slow-motion to evoke sadness from the audience.The Roy smashes his head through the wall helps to show a sense of power from Roy, which creates a sense of danger toward Deckard from the audience, making them feel like he is not safe. There are a lot of cross-cuts between Roy and Deckard, which helps the audience to see the similarities between the two characters, almost hinting that Deckard could be a replicants too. The fading between the dead Roy and Deckard, and the use of close ups on Deckard’s sad face makes the audience feel quite sad too.In this scene we l earn that Roy just wanted to live and not be a ‘slave’ which creates empathy from the audience. The significance of the dove which is released when Roy dies connotes that the bird was almost a representation of Roy – and the shot of the bird flying away is a symbol of Roy finally being ‘free’ which leaves the audience feeling sad and almost regretful that they saw Roy as the villain, especially when we see him jumping in and out of the shadows at the beginning of the scene, as if this was almost a game to him.In this scene, Roy can be seen as the anti-hero. The use of lighting surrounding Roy when he has died makes him appear almost god-like, signifying him as powerful, which he has been throughout this scene. The long shot of Roy and Deckard, when Roy has just pulled the dangling Deckard from the roof to safety signifying that Roy can be seen as an anti-hero, connotes that Roy has more power over Deckard. The way Deckard is lying on the floor at Roy ’s feet shows Deckard in a submissive way, that human’s are powerless against replicants.The close up, low angle on Roy’s face after this, makes the audience feel quite scared of Roy. His eyes are big, almost ‘crazy’ and the way Pris’ blood is running down his face make the audience feel scared of Roy. Ridley Scott’s lack of lighting in this extract can help to identify Ridley Scott as an auteur, as he also uses a lack of lighting in Alien. The shot of Roy behind the barbed wire, almost signifying a caged animal which replicants have shown similarities to throughout the film, creates a sense of fear and uncertainty for the audience.The way the light is shining behind him creating a lot of shadows, makes Roy seem a little mysterious as the audience are uncertain as to what is going to happen next. The way the lighting throughout the extract creates a lot of shadows, making the extract feel bleak and dark, creating almost a Film Noir fee l to the film, creates a bleak, and dark feel for the audience. Throughout the extract, the only lighting we see is artificial, as the only light comes from lamps, bright lights from a ‘Spinner’ advertising the new world or bright neon billboard’s which helps to give the film an artificial and futuristic tone.Ridley Scott’s use of dark colours in this scene, such as grey, black and blue, creates a sinister feel to the scene making the audience know something bad is going to happen. This is similar to Alien, as all the lighting in that film is artificial too, coming from the lights from the ship, and the 1984 Mac advert which Ridley Scott directed, can define him as an auteur. The way Ridley Scott continually uses similar features and themes among his films helps to exhibit him as an auteur.Blade Runner and Alien are very similar in terms of editing and mise en scene, the use of this in Blade Runner helps to establish Ridley Scott as an auteur as he uses th ese themes and effects in many more of his films. Word Count: 1505/1602 Bibliography Allen, R. C. & Gomery, D. (1985) Film History: Theory and Practice, McGraw Hill Byers, Thomas B. (1990) ‘Commodity Futures’ in Kuhn, A. (ed. ) Alien Zone, Cultural Theory and Contemporary Science Fiction Cinema, London: Verso. Caughie, J. (ed. ) (1981) Theories of Authorship, London: Routledge Nelmes, J. (ed. ) (2003) Introduction to Film Studies, London: Routledge

Politics in Europe Essay

The move in the direction of higher levels of European integration over the years has concerned the changing of powers over a number of important public policy sectors from member state governments to the European institutions. Advancement towards higher levels of policy integration has been difficult and slow in some areas. After 1990, German objectives and actions were altered detectably and legitimately in two EC/ EU policy areas, the structural funds and the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). New government positions in Brussels, which began with adjustments to federal policies, came about in response to the profoundly novel regional and agricultural challenges thrown up by unification and its aftermath. In each case, the eastern Land governments were at the forefront of pressure for changes in federal policy, and were able to utilize the access and information granted them under formal policymaking arrangements at the national and supranational levels to good effect (Loehnis and de la Dehesa, 83). In others it developed more quickly and completely because of the temperament of agreements hit when the Communities were forged and because of the interests of powerful member states. The establishment of the ECSC and the successful policy integration in these industrial sectors so vital for the economies of the 1950s resulted from a coincidence of member state interests and skillful institution building.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The organization of the Euratom and the EEC in 1958 led to further projects for common decision making. Central to the goal of forging an ever closer union among the people of Europe was the idea of an enmeshing of member state economies, in large part through the instrumentality of trade (Clout, 16). Thus came about the establishment of a customs union for intra-EEC trade in all industrial goods. This feature of the nascent Community was evidently of benefit to West Germany. With reverence to underlying, the organization of the EEC was one connecting the two most powerful founding member states, France and West Germany, whereby France, because of her large, and, in the European context, comparatively efficient agricultural sector, was accorded a general agricultural policy in return for the creation of a customs union for trade in all goods that was in the interest of the FRG, the budding Community’s most efficient industrial economy. Indeed, it became normal to refer to the European enterprise as a customs union with an agricultural guiding principle.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) replaced member states’ farm policies. Implemented to increase efficiency and productivity in the agricultural sector, to help bring about stable food prices, and to provide a secure supply of high quality foodstuff for the Community citizens, another objective, the maintenance of a fair standard of living for those gaining their livelihood in the industry, became preeminent. Agricultural goods are traded freely within the Community and policy decisions, including those on agricultural prices, are made in Brussels. The CAP consists of a structural fund that is intended to support financially modernization of agriculture. To realize the CAPS main objective and thus to maintain prices at levels that result in acceptable incomes for member state farmers, a levy is placed on agricultural imports form third countries. Locally, agricultural supplies are â€Å"purchased into intervention† once their price falls under a certain level. Because of the tendency for protectionist practices to lead to increased production, the CAP has often in the past led to huge oversupplies of such commodities as grains, meat, milk products, and wine, which have been bought up and stored at great cost so as not to depress prices. Exports of these high priced commodities are subsidized, again at great expense. These export subsidies have guided EU’s trading partners to accuse Europe of dumping these commodities and have even been the cause of major trade disputes with them over the years. The cost of the CAP reached 70 percent of the Community’s budget at times in the past. In recent years, measures have been implemented to reduce production of commodities in surplus supply, with the result that farm expenditures will gradually decline, and the EU’s trade officials have been able to convince her trade partners that decreased production will gradually lead to a less prominent role for EU farm products on international markets (Harris et al., 325).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Germany’s interests, on the whole, have not been well served by the CAP. Internationally, she is interested in peaceful economic relations in her role as one of the great trading nations of the world and the disruptions caused by disputes between the EC/EU and its trading partners over agricultural trade have not provided her well. As a highly industrialized country with a small agricultural sector and as a large net importer of foodstuffs, the high price European food policy is not in her national interest. Germany’s donations to the CAP amounted in 1993 to about 30 percent of total expenditures whereas receipts flowing to Germany amounted to only half that amount (Black, 323). And yet her agricultural ministers have often supported high prices in Brussels. This anomaly can be explained not so much by German government’s generally pro-integration attitude (although German governments know that a price has to be paid for European cooperation) as it can by domestic politics. Despite the small number of farmers, the agricultural sector is highly organized and dominant politically. In addition to this, public opinion is likely to be supportive of protecting the economic and social viability of rural areas and maintaining agricultural land in production. The CAP’s amplified importance on environmental concerns has helped to make it more pleasant to the ecologically cognizant German public.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Unification has led to some extent increased importance of the CAP for Germany. Eastern Germany has in the past had excessively large agricultural sector, and the GDR had a large agricultural workforce of 800,000 as well as two times as much farm land per capita as West Germany. Because of its low productivity, GDR agriculture was extremely supported financially. It was severely challenged by the transition to the market economy after unification, and by 1994 the agricultural workforce in the five new LaÈnder had been reduced to 224,000. CAP funds contributed importantly in the adjustment to more efficient production and laying fallow of some 17 percent of farmland there. But even with the added CAP funds flowing to her as a result of the disproportionately large agricultural sector in the new LaÈnder, Germany still supply in a major way to the Community’s agricultural funds or treasury (Karcz, 227).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   With the ongoing rationalization in a sector that has lost 3.2 million jobs. And this took place in the years from 1960 to 1992, and in which a farmer who could generate enough harvest for ten people in 1950 can now provide for 80, political clout of farmers is in unremitting decline. Such rationalization is taking place apace at the European level, and the forces of free trade and globalization at the broader international level will ensure that one of the most prominent EU policies will reduce in significance as the Union is forced to adjust its very expensive and relatively inefficient subsidization policies (Dent, 162). With its decline in importance, the CAP will be less of a drain on German finances, but it will become controversial again if the Union decides to permit the attainment of Central and East European states such as Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia, all countries in which inefficient agriculture employs a much greater fraction of the workforce than the EU average, and where implementation of the CAP would be hugely expensive. Germany, positively in the direction of eastward development of the EU would then give a high percentage of the ensuing costs. For this reason, Germany’s outlook in the direction of the CAP is expected to be critical in this significant judgment or decision also.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Both the European Community and its member governments administer programs designed to achieve a spatially balanced pattern of economic development. Typically, these programs designate assisted areas within which applicants are eligible for capital grants, soft loans, accelerated depreciation allowances, and tax concessions for business, as well as job training for workers and infrastructure grants to municipalities. There existed three main programs at the European level prior to Maastricht, which together constituted the EC structural funds: the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), the European Social Fund (ESF), and the Guidance Section of the European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (EAGGF) (Adams, 101). In West Germany, federal regional policy tackled two types of problem region: underdeveloped rural areas, and areas vulnerable to or suffering from the decline of a dominant industry. Administratively, the program was accomplished as a â€Å"joint task,† or â€Å"Gemeinschaftsaufgabe† (GA), in which official conferences among Land and federal representatives created annual framework strategies that set funding levels, designated assisted areas across the country, and instituted assistance rates. The LaÈnder were accountable for program execution and management. The designation of assisted areas followed from clearly defined decision rules and multiple statistical indicators. Certain regions were eligible a priori for assistance, that is, they were not requisite to meet the criteria via the indicators. Incorporated in this particular category, but assisted out of their own individual programs, were the zonal border areas (Zonenrandgebiete), a twenty-five-mile-wide narrow piece down the boundaries with Czechoslovakia and the GDR, and West Berlin. These regions, underprivileged by the postwar division of Germany, enjoyed the highest assistance rates. Prior to 1979, Germany, like other member states, received its EC structural fund allocations in the form of a fixed national quota negotiated in the Council of Ministers. Between 1975 and 1979, Germany garnered 8.4 percent of European Regional Development Fund allocations, and posted the second lowest per capita share of regional fund expenditure for its assisted areas: ECU8.6 per capita, as compared to the Community average of 27.2. These modest sums colored the position adopted by the Germans in Brussels. Germany blocked a Commission initiative in the early 1970s to establish a much larger regional fund, and thereafter remained wary of proposals to increase spending on the structural funds. That said, Bonn consistently endorsed efforts to improve the effectiveness of grants and to concentrate resources on the neediest regions in the Community. Reform of the structural funds commenced in 1979, and gained momentum throughout the 1980s as concern about the regional impact of a barrier-free internal market grew. 5 The structural funds budget expanded, approaching one-quarter of total EC annual outlays, and programs were oriented to Community-wide objectives and criteria set largely by the Commission, which also gained the capacity to interact directly with regional and sub-regional actors, on occasion bypassing the national governments. To improve the targeting of assistance, the Commission in 1988 recognized five main concerns: (1) Promoting the development and structural adjustment of lagging regions, defined as those in which per capita GDP is 75 percent or less of the Community average. These regions were to receive up to 80 percent of structural fund allocations; (2) converting regions seriously affected by industrial decline; (3) combating long-term unemployment; (4) facilitating the occupational integration of young people; (5a) promoting the adaptation of agricultural production, and (5b) promoting the development of rural areas (Leibfried and Pierson, 144). The Commission was authorized to draw up its own list of assisted areas, which did not extend beyond completely with those recognized in national regional programs. For the period 1989 to 1993, the Objective 1 regions include 21 percent of the EC population, and were located on the western and southern border of the Community. Objective 2 and Objective 5b regions contained 16 and 5 percent of the EC’s population respectively (Hannequart, 74). Until unification, the Federal Republic continued to receive modest amounts from the structural funds. Between 1979 and 1989, Germany’s share of ERDF commitments fell from 6.2 percent to 3.9 percent. As the wealthiest Community member, it had no Objective 1 regions, and a scattering of Objective 2 and 5b regions in all but one of the eleven LaÈnder. Moreover, in the 1980s, Germany became the target of sustained efforts by the Commission’s DG-IV to limit the area coverage of federal and state regional programs as well as their assistance rates. The pressures of EC competition policy produced results; in 1988, Bonn agreed to reduce the percentage of the population covered by federal and state assisted areas from 45 percent to 39 percent; a further reduction to a figure below 30 percent was scheduled for 1991 (Berg et al., 213). Bonn officials bridled at the Commission’s interventions, in disagreement that DG-IV’s actions impeded or got in the way with their legal responsibilities under Article 72 of the Basic Law to secure an equal opportunity of living standards within Germany. They also passed judgment on the EC competition authorities for undermining the delicate conciliations accomplished in the GA between rural and industrial LaÈnder. On the other hand, federal officials utilized the Commission as a welcome scapegoat in their efforts or endeavor to push expenditure cuts and decrease in area coverage through the GA in response to tapering federal budget limitations in the 1980s. At the European level, the structural resources established to be one of the more controversial substances to surface in deliberations connecting Bonn and Brussels (Hooghe, 171). Works Cited Adams, William James. Singular Europe: Economy and Polity of the European Community University of Michigan Press, 1992. Berg, Leo van den, Erik Braun, and J. van der Meer. National Urban Policies in the European Union. Ashgate, 2007. Black, Stanley W. Europe’s Economy Looks East: Implications for Germany and the European Union. Cambridge University Press, 1997. Clout, Hugh D. Western Europe. Longman, 1986. Dent, Christopher. The European Economy. Routledge, 1997. Hannequart, Achille. Economic and Social Cohesion in Europe: A New Objective for Integration. Routledge, 1992. Harris, Simon, Alan Swinbank, and Guy Wikinson. The Food and Farm Policies of the European Community. Wiley, 1983. Hooghe, Liesbet. Cohesion Policy and European Integration: Building Multi-Level Governance. Oxford University Press, 1996. Karcz, Jerzy F. Soviet and East European Agriculture. USA: University of California Press, 1967. Leibfried, Stephan, and Paul Pierson. European Social Policy: Between Fragmentation and Integration. Brookings Institution Press, 1995. Loehnis, Anthony, and Guillermo de la Dehesa. Flexible Integration: Towards a More Effective and Democratic Europe. London: Centre for Economic Policy Research, 1995.